These earliest pontificals, all dated after 800 ce, would also contain other material that would be later transferred to the rituale, or manual of other rites for the use of a priest; pontifical rituals would eventually be excluded from this presbyteral volume. Some two centuries later, another theologian, the archdeacon Berengar of Tours (d. 1080), would three times be condemned for advocating the spiritual presence of Christ, and rejecting a physicalist interpretation of the real presence like that espoused by Radbertus. WebIndeed, the 10th century has traditionally been regarded as a period of decay and corruption within the church. He also surrounded himself with like-minded clerics and reformers who transformed the culture of Rome; from Germany he brought Humbert and Frederick of Lorraine (the future pope Stephen IX; reigned 105758), and from Italy he recruited Peter Damian (100772). The actual manipulation of the various textual components could, however, become quite complex. Intended to return the church to its original purity and to abolish simony and clerical marriage, the movement revolutionized the churchs organization, establishing the hierarchical structure headed by the pope that has come to characterize the institution. At first, most 20th-century editors hypothesized that this sacramentary was based on a (lost) Roman presbyteral book, used not by the pope but by the clergy in charge of the numerous smaller church communities in Rome, the tituli (title churches). There are several examples of early medieval pontificals dating from the 9th and 10th centuries. Durandus used earlier Roman pontificals as well as local sources for his Pontifical, and it was this version of the Pontifical (with minor editing by papal secretaries and masters of ceremonies Agostino Piccolomini and John Burchard) that became the first printed edition of the Roman Pontifical (1485). Simply put, physical objects were understood to be composed of both substance (the inner reality) and accidents, various elements of physical appearance to the senses, which could vary without changing the inner essence of reality, the substance. 
What is the difference between Christianity and Roman Catholicism? It was prepared through the manuscript research of Dom Prosper Guranger and the monastic community of the French abbey of Solesmes. 
But it was not until the beginning of the 11th century that the faith spread among the nomadic peoples of this and other central Asian regions. Even the post-Tridentine Roman Ritual (Rituale Romanum), published in 1614, was offered as a standard, but did not officially replace other ritual traditions. The precise calculation is more complex, and involves other factors such as the use of a set date for the equinox (March 21) and the day of a standard full moon (the Paschal full moon), rather than the actual astronomical phenomena. In addition, some liturgical books used by monastic communities would differ in a number of ways from those used by diocesan clergy or communities of canons associated with a cathedral. In the 12th century, the papal curia had its own breviary, which was revised during the 13th century; it was this breviary that the Franciscans adopted and adapted for their own use (using the Gallican version of the psalter instead of the Roman). Over time, mixed Roman-Gallican-Germanic sacramenties diffused back over the Alps to Rome itself. Through canonical elections, Roman and local synods, the publication of canonical collections and polemical manifestos, his appointment of plenipotentiary legates (representatives with full power to negotiate), and his immediate control of diocesan bishops, Gregory spun a web in which every thread led to Rome. A print edition of the Missale Romanum, based on the 14th-century Missal of the Roman curia, was published in 1474. Despite the organizational confusion of the time, the early 11th century was a period of intense religious activity at all levels of society. In some parts Liturgy also shaped, and was shaped by, social, political, and cultural life in general. During this thousand years in both Western and Eastern Christianity, when the faith had a cultural monopoly, there was an outburst of creativity and a fashioning of a Christian culture that greatly enhanced and complicated any once-simple notions of an essence. 1054 The East-West Gregory VII, though defending the independence of the church, was in fact tolerant of royal appointments that were free from simony. The Investiture Controversy: Gregory VII to Calixtus II, The papacy at its height: the 12th and 13th centuries, From the late Middle Ages to the Reformation, Late medieval reform: the Great Schism and conciliarism, Roman Catholicism on the eve of the Reformation, Expressions of spirituality and folk piety, Roman Catholicism and Renaissance humanism, Roman Catholicism and the emergence of national consciousness, The age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Roman Catholicism and the Protestant Reformation, Religious life in the 17th and 18th centuries, The New World: Spanish and Portuguese empires, Spanish and French missions in North America, Roman Catholicism in the United States and Canada, Ancient and medieval views of papal authority, Early-modern and modern views of papal authority, Historical conceptions of the relationship of the papacy to the world, The Roman Curia and the College of Cardinals. Supporters of the traditional role of the emperor in ecclesiastical elections defended lay investiture by appealing to immemorial practice, which had been accepted and even enjoined by the papacy. Frank Lampard is back in the Chelsea dug-out as interim manager until the end of the season. Inside of churches, consecrated hosts were increasingly reserved near the main altar, instead of in the sacristy or on the side of the main church, to accommodate not only the provision of communion for the sick or dying, but also those who wished to pray before the eucharistic Presence of Christ. The movements efforts to remove lay interference in church affairs laid the foundation for later ideas concerning the separation of church and state. Since not all of these new movements were considered orthodox in belief and practice, these founders were careful to obtain papal approval for their communities. For instance, a French monastic volume, dating from about the year 1100 ce, contains both a psalter as well as a ritual section (which in turn includes several benedictiones as well as an ordo missae). But many generations ago, when Christian higher Monastic communities of men and women also structured their daily cloistered lives around the celebration of the Divine Office. However, with a substantial amount of editorial work done, specialists in other medieval disciplines can and should now make use of these more readily available printed editions in their own research in theological, historical, and cultural studies. The same is true for the Office. What Is the Most Widely Practiced Religion in the World? The medieval period itself can be roughly subdivided into three more specific sections: the early Middle Ages (roughly from 600 to 1100 ce); the high Middle Ages (1100 to 1300 ce); and the late Middle Ages (1300 to 1500 ce). Followers need to understand where we came from to understand where we 
Now secure in Germany, Henry invaded Italy, drove Gregory from Rome, and replaced him with Guibert of Ravenna, the antipope Clement III. Eric Palazzos A History of Liturgical Books: From the Beginning to the Thirteenth Century (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1998) is the English translation of the 1993 French original, Le Moyen ge: Des origines au XIIIme sicle (Paris: Beauchesne, 1993). The Christian king of Castile and Galicia, Alfonso VI, has been inviting Christians in Islamic Spain to his kingdom. In the mid-1040s three claimants to the throne of St. Peter held sway in central Italy. His legislation mandating clerical celibacy was issued partly because his immediate predecessors had advocated it; he was further motivated by his desire to restore what he perceived as the right order of the world. Major feast days of both the temporal and sanctoral cycles were followed by an additional week of dedicated and exclusive liturgical celebration, called an octave (from octo, eight). After the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council (19621965), the number of historically based studies of almost every element of Western Christian liturgy were published, by Roman Catholic and Protestant scholars alike, primarily in Europe and the United States. 
Beginning in the 7th century, the early Roman rite was diffused to many other areas of the western church and continued its development with lesser or greater local adaptation. By the The High Middle Ages was a time of population growth, increased urbanization, and social change. During the late 13th and 14th centuries, this pontifical came into contact with another Pontifical, compiled and edited by of the bishop of Mende (southern France), William Durandus (d. 1296). Humbert and Damian wrote influential treatises attacking simony and clerical marriage and served the pope as cardinals. Although Gregory died a lonely exile, his principles of reform found reception all over Europe, and the new generation of bishops was Gregorian in sympathy and obedient in practice to papal commands in a way unknown to their predecessors. Upon his accession as pope, Paschal II (reigned 10991118) immediately condemned lay investiture, thus precipitating the crisis in England between Anselm (1033/341109), archbishop of Canterbury, and King Henry I (10691135). In the case of the bread and wine at Mass, the substance, or inner reality, of bread and wine, was replaced at the consecration, and instead the inner reality of the body and blood of Christ became the substance. A helpful starting point for liturgical studies is about the year 600 ce, corresponding with the papacy of Pope Gregory I (d. 604 ce); a useful concluding date is correspondingly 1500 ce, just a few decades after the publication of the Missale Romanum 1474 (on which the Tridentine MR 1570 would be based) and just a few decades before Luthers condemnation at the Council of Worms (1521). The investigation of liturgical development in the later medieval period began to build momentum. Other chants were developed from the 9th to the 11th centuries: tropes, sung phrases or texts woven into the chanting of a main text, like an alleluia, were collected into a book called the Troper. WebChristianity and Religious Freedom in the Medieval Period (476 1453 CE) Christianity and Religious Freedom in the Medieval Period (476 1453 CE) Author : David Little The Medieval period commenced with the decline of the Roman Empire as the result of the barbarian invasions. Political influence accelerated its rapid spread north of the Alps and its acceptance in Rome. An initial supplement of other Mass formularies from the Frankish tradition (sometimes referred to as the Hucusque, after the first word of its introductory lines) was added to the original Hadrianum by Benedict of Aniane; this compound sacramentary was circulated widely during the 9th century. By this time, however, a large majority of bishops were Gregorians, and the pope was persuaded to retract. The reforms of Gregory VII and the movement associated with him, sometimes recognized as the most important reformation in church history, radically restructured the church and its teachings. Important collections include Giovanni Bona, Rerum liturgicarum libri duo (16711672; edited by Roberto Sala, 17471753); Jean Mabillon, Museum Italicum (1687); Edmond Martne, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus (four volumes, editions from 1702 to 1788); Jacques-Paul Migne, Patrologica Latina (multiple volumes published during the 19th century); and the on-going Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH; from 1826). This curial/Regula (rule) Missal was revised further in the mid-13th century by the English Franciscan Haymo of Faversham, and could be was produced in smaller manuscript formats, to be more easily carried from place to place. These Masses could be offered for any one of a number of special intentions or reasons, but came to be most frequently offered on behalf of a deceased person, for which the priest would be offered a stipend (normally a small sum of money). The papal return to Rome in 1377 was marred by a contested papal election the following year, leading to a schism in the papacy when first two, then three, clerics claimed to be the validly elected pope. While this collection is incomplete, and as a volume may not have functioned as a sacramentary itself, it is a valuable source for understanding the spirituality and development of the Roman liturgy in the earliest part of the medieval period. This initiative, clearly outlined in the Dictatus papae (Dictates of the Pope), a list of 27 short statements (included in his official letter collection), reflected his belief that the pope, as the successor of St. Peter, inherits a commission from Christ to rule over the church. 
Eventually the texts in the supplement were integrated into the main text, and other material was added. The liturgy of the medieval Christian West (ca. The celebration of the Eucharist (the Mass) was at the heart of medieval liturgical life, regardless of the season. The doctrine of purgatory as it developed during the medieval period stated that persons who died either in a state of lesser (venial) sin, or with penance for their sins still left undone, would need to be spiritually purified before admission to Heaven. And, although it was late to join, the papacy made reform a truly universal movement that transformed both church and society. In the 13th century, a special display stand for carrying a consecrated host in procession, the monstrance, came into use, and became more elaborately designed as the period progressed. The date of Easter follows a lunar cycle (like the Jewish celebration of Passover, its original context), and is therefore a moveable feast. Auricular (privately heard) confession was widespread but not universal. The Late Middle Ages was marked by both turbulence and revival. After royal claims gradually transformed election into royal appointment, admission to office was effected by the bestowal, or investiture, by the lord of ring and staff (symbols of the episcopal office), preceded by an act of homage. Contemporary sources describe the peace councils as great displays of the relics of saints, which attracted large crowds of laity whose presence and enthusiasm supported the churchs reform efforts. Communities of canons, clerics who resided together (and some of whom followed a set structure, or rule, of life), formed the backbone of the liturgical life in a medieval cathedral; a major part of their duties included the daily public celebration of the Divine Office. WebBy the 11th century, the Cistercians reformed the Benedictine way of life, adhering more strictly to Benedicts original rules and focusing on manual labour and self-sufficiency. The English Henry Bradshaw Society (HBS), formed in 1890 and exclusively dedicated to publishing editions of rare liturgical texts, offered its first volume in 1891 and continues its publication program today. The architectural and geographical environment, the hierarchical and political influences, the considerations of class and gender, and the economic and social developments of each century must be understood and interwoven with theological, linguistic, and artistic interpretation. The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church. Political leaders influenced the development of liturgical books; some were produced for noble patrons, others ordered in attempts to unify a particular realm. Sociology, Anthropology, and Psychology of Religion, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.84. Leo established a papal presence north of the Alps in other church councils at which he promoted reform and denounced both simony and clerical marriage. WebThere are three major Christian kingdoms in the eleventh century: Navarre, Aragon, and Len-Castile. Others of these new groups had been or would be denounced as heretical, and yet others were influenced by the revival of an older, more Manichean dualistic theology (the Cathars/Albigensians) that challenged the traditional Christian understanding of God, the world, and salvation. Each description, or ordo, essentially provided detailed stage directions for presiders like the pope, bishops, and other clerics to follow while performing a specific liturgical rite; collectively, these texts are known as the ordines Romani. 
The texts and chants for each celebration of the Mass and Office came from one of two resources: the Ordinary, that is, those parts of the liturgy that remained invariable for every service; and the Proper, those parts of the liturgy that changed according to day, season, and feast. But in the northern and western regions the proliferation of small private churches had not yet been wholly absorbed, and the existence of proprietary and exempt enclaves continued until the Reformation and beyond. Gregory had no choice but to lift the ban of excommunication and restore his rival to the church. The bibliography that follows has been compiled to offer a list of secondary sources in English, each offering additional bibliographic references to numerous primary source editions as well as secondary sources and more specialized studies in a number of other languages. All of the western rites had their own lectionaries at this time; the eventual list that makes its way into the various forms of the later medieval full missal (Missale plenum) in the Roman rite is a Frankish-Roman hybrid. The sanctoral cycle was composed of feasts of the saints. Saints with Incorrupt Bodies. Local farmers would have their fields blessed during the spring, on days of fasting and prayer known as the Rogation days. In earlier centuries, some of these tests of guilt or innocence were conducted in a liturgical context, with a priest saying Mass before the ordeal and reciting exhortations and blessings over the instruments of these trials (e.g., hot water or heated iron). In the papal election decree of 1059, which was issued during the minority of the German king Henry IV (10501106), the right and duty of papal election was assigned to the cardinals, tacitly eliminating the role of the king of Germany even though vague reference to his notification was made. 6001500) provided the structure around which life in Western Europe was structured for almost a thousand years. The movement also emphasized the central role of the priesthood and the sacraments in Christian life and asserted the importance of morally incorrupt clergy. The breviary became essential for fulfilling this obligation. Schools established at monasteries and cathedrals formed the basis for the foundation and growth of medieval universities. Lccn. Only then can medieval liturgy be comprehended in all of its manifold dimensions. Dewey Decimal. Like the libelli missarum, similar collections of descriptions of how to perform various liturgical rites were also gathered in Rome. In addition to the volumes containing rubrics and prayers for liturgical celebrations, a separate cluster of books contained music to be used during these rites, in a style known as chant; Gregorian chant became the dominant form. The former Christian Iceland was Christianized in the year 1000 CE, when Christianity became the religion by law. Examples of volumes that prove useful in providing historical background or theological insights on the liturgy include: the medieval Liber Pontificalis (book of the popes) a collection that (with some irregularities) offers biographies and descriptions of the activities of the popes; liturgical commentaries from various medieval authors (like Amalarius of Metz [d. 850] or William Durandus [d. 1296]); or handbooks that offer different kinds of instruction about liturgical rites, like the earlier medieval penitentials, or the late medieval Liber sacerdotalis. A right and duty of kings and emperors since the time of Charlemagne, lay investiture had become increasingly important to secular rulers who depended on ecclesiastical support for their authority. To the east, Hungarians and Poles begin to convert to Christianity, and Christianity reaches Iceland and Greenland to the west. Rooted in late antiquity, these hours of prayer essentially consecrated the passage of each day with the praise of God. Leo introduced the spirit of reform as well as a broader conception of papal authority, both of which were dramatically displayed at the Synod of Reims in 1049. Although there were far fewer such incidents in the 11th century than in the 12th and 13th centuries, there were more in the 11th century than in the previous five centuries combined. Essentially, Easter falls on the Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox. 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What is the difference between Christianity and Roman Catholicism? It was prepared through the manuscript research of Dom Prosper Guranger and the monastic community of the French abbey of Solesmes. But it was not until the beginning of the 11th century that the faith spread among the nomadic peoples of this and other central Asian regions. Even the post-Tridentine Roman Ritual (Rituale Romanum), published in 1614, was offered as a standard, but did not officially replace other ritual traditions. The precise calculation is more complex, and involves other factors such as the use of a set date for the equinox (March 21) and the day of a standard full moon (the Paschal full moon), rather than the actual astronomical phenomena. In addition, some liturgical books used by monastic communities would differ in a number of ways from those used by diocesan clergy or communities of canons associated with a cathedral. In the 12th century, the papal curia had its own breviary, which was revised during the 13th century; it was this breviary that the Franciscans adopted and adapted for their own use (using the Gallican version of the psalter instead of the Roman). Over time, mixed Roman-Gallican-Germanic sacramenties diffused back over the Alps to Rome itself. Through canonical elections, Roman and local synods, the publication of canonical collections and polemical manifestos, his appointment of plenipotentiary legates (representatives with full power to negotiate), and his immediate control of diocesan bishops, Gregory spun a web in which every thread led to Rome. A print edition of the Missale Romanum, based on the 14th-century Missal of the Roman curia, was published in 1474. Despite the organizational confusion of the time, the early 11th century was a period of intense religious activity at all levels of society. In some parts Liturgy also shaped, and was shaped by, social, political, and cultural life in general. During this thousand years in both Western and Eastern Christianity, when the faith had a cultural monopoly, there was an outburst of creativity and a fashioning of a Christian culture that greatly enhanced and complicated any once-simple notions of an essence. 1054 The East-West Gregory VII, though defending the independence of the church, was in fact tolerant of royal appointments that were free from simony. The Investiture Controversy: Gregory VII to Calixtus II, The papacy at its height: the 12th and 13th centuries, From the late Middle Ages to the Reformation, Late medieval reform: the Great Schism and conciliarism, Roman Catholicism on the eve of the Reformation, Expressions of spirituality and folk piety, Roman Catholicism and Renaissance humanism, Roman Catholicism and the emergence of national consciousness, The age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Roman Catholicism and the Protestant Reformation, Religious life in the 17th and 18th centuries, The New World: Spanish and Portuguese empires, Spanish and French missions in North America, Roman Catholicism in the United States and Canada, Ancient and medieval views of papal authority, Early-modern and modern views of papal authority, Historical conceptions of the relationship of the papacy to the world, The Roman Curia and the College of Cardinals. Supporters of the traditional role of the emperor in ecclesiastical elections defended lay investiture by appealing to immemorial practice, which had been accepted and even enjoined by the papacy. Frank Lampard is back in the Chelsea dug-out as interim manager until the end of the season. Inside of churches, consecrated hosts were increasingly reserved near the main altar, instead of in the sacristy or on the side of the main church, to accommodate not only the provision of communion for the sick or dying, but also those who wished to pray before the eucharistic Presence of Christ. The movements efforts to remove lay interference in church affairs laid the foundation for later ideas concerning the separation of church and state. Since not all of these new movements were considered orthodox in belief and practice, these founders were careful to obtain papal approval for their communities. For instance, a French monastic volume, dating from about the year 1100 ce, contains both a psalter as well as a ritual section (which in turn includes several benedictiones as well as an ordo missae). But many generations ago, when Christian higher Monastic communities of men and women also structured their daily cloistered lives around the celebration of the Divine Office. However, with a substantial amount of editorial work done, specialists in other medieval disciplines can and should now make use of these more readily available printed editions in their own research in theological, historical, and cultural studies. The same is true for the Office. What Is the Most Widely Practiced Religion in the World? The medieval period itself can be roughly subdivided into three more specific sections: the early Middle Ages (roughly from 600 to 1100 ce); the high Middle Ages (1100 to 1300 ce); and the late Middle Ages (1300 to 1500 ce). Followers need to understand where we came from to understand where we Now secure in Germany, Henry invaded Italy, drove Gregory from Rome, and replaced him with Guibert of Ravenna, the antipope Clement III. Eric Palazzos A History of Liturgical Books: From the Beginning to the Thirteenth Century (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1998) is the English translation of the 1993 French original, Le Moyen ge: Des origines au XIIIme sicle (Paris: Beauchesne, 1993). The Christian king of Castile and Galicia, Alfonso VI, has been inviting Christians in Islamic Spain to his kingdom. In the mid-1040s three claimants to the throne of St. Peter held sway in central Italy. His legislation mandating clerical celibacy was issued partly because his immediate predecessors had advocated it; he was further motivated by his desire to restore what he perceived as the right order of the world. Major feast days of both the temporal and sanctoral cycles were followed by an additional week of dedicated and exclusive liturgical celebration, called an octave (from octo, eight). After the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council (19621965), the number of historically based studies of almost every element of Western Christian liturgy were published, by Roman Catholic and Protestant scholars alike, primarily in Europe and the United States. Beginning in the 7th century, the early Roman rite was diffused to many other areas of the western church and continued its development with lesser or greater local adaptation. By the The High Middle Ages was a time of population growth, increased urbanization, and social change. During the late 13th and 14th centuries, this pontifical came into contact with another Pontifical, compiled and edited by of the bishop of Mende (southern France), William Durandus (d. 1296). Humbert and Damian wrote influential treatises attacking simony and clerical marriage and served the pope as cardinals. Although Gregory died a lonely exile, his principles of reform found reception all over Europe, and the new generation of bishops was Gregorian in sympathy and obedient in practice to papal commands in a way unknown to their predecessors. Upon his accession as pope, Paschal II (reigned 10991118) immediately condemned lay investiture, thus precipitating the crisis in England between Anselm (1033/341109), archbishop of Canterbury, and King Henry I (10691135). In the case of the bread and wine at Mass, the substance, or inner reality, of bread and wine, was replaced at the consecration, and instead the inner reality of the body and blood of Christ became the substance. A helpful starting point for liturgical studies is about the year 600 ce, corresponding with the papacy of Pope Gregory I (d. 604 ce); a useful concluding date is correspondingly 1500 ce, just a few decades after the publication of the Missale Romanum 1474 (on which the Tridentine MR 1570 would be based) and just a few decades before Luthers condemnation at the Council of Worms (1521). The investigation of liturgical development in the later medieval period began to build momentum. Other chants were developed from the 9th to the 11th centuries: tropes, sung phrases or texts woven into the chanting of a main text, like an alleluia, were collected into a book called the Troper. WebChristianity and Religious Freedom in the Medieval Period (476 1453 CE) Christianity and Religious Freedom in the Medieval Period (476 1453 CE) Author : David Little The Medieval period commenced with the decline of the Roman Empire as the result of the barbarian invasions. Political influence accelerated its rapid spread north of the Alps and its acceptance in Rome. An initial supplement of other Mass formularies from the Frankish tradition (sometimes referred to as the Hucusque, after the first word of its introductory lines) was added to the original Hadrianum by Benedict of Aniane; this compound sacramentary was circulated widely during the 9th century. By this time, however, a large majority of bishops were Gregorians, and the pope was persuaded to retract. The reforms of Gregory VII and the movement associated with him, sometimes recognized as the most important reformation in church history, radically restructured the church and its teachings. Important collections include Giovanni Bona, Rerum liturgicarum libri duo (16711672; edited by Roberto Sala, 17471753); Jean Mabillon, Museum Italicum (1687); Edmond Martne, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus (four volumes, editions from 1702 to 1788); Jacques-Paul Migne, Patrologica Latina (multiple volumes published during the 19th century); and the on-going Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH; from 1826). This curial/Regula (rule) Missal was revised further in the mid-13th century by the English Franciscan Haymo of Faversham, and could be was produced in smaller manuscript formats, to be more easily carried from place to place. These Masses could be offered for any one of a number of special intentions or reasons, but came to be most frequently offered on behalf of a deceased person, for which the priest would be offered a stipend (normally a small sum of money). The papal return to Rome in 1377 was marred by a contested papal election the following year, leading to a schism in the papacy when first two, then three, clerics claimed to be the validly elected pope. While this collection is incomplete, and as a volume may not have functioned as a sacramentary itself, it is a valuable source for understanding the spirituality and development of the Roman liturgy in the earliest part of the medieval period. This initiative, clearly outlined in the Dictatus papae (Dictates of the Pope), a list of 27 short statements (included in his official letter collection), reflected his belief that the pope, as the successor of St. Peter, inherits a commission from Christ to rule over the church. Eventually the texts in the supplement were integrated into the main text, and other material was added. The liturgy of the medieval Christian West (ca. The celebration of the Eucharist (the Mass) was at the heart of medieval liturgical life, regardless of the season. The doctrine of purgatory as it developed during the medieval period stated that persons who died either in a state of lesser (venial) sin, or with penance for their sins still left undone, would need to be spiritually purified before admission to Heaven. And, although it was late to join, the papacy made reform a truly universal movement that transformed both church and society. In the 13th century, a special display stand for carrying a consecrated host in procession, the monstrance, came into use, and became more elaborately designed as the period progressed. The date of Easter follows a lunar cycle (like the Jewish celebration of Passover, its original context), and is therefore a moveable feast. Auricular (privately heard) confession was widespread but not universal. The Late Middle Ages was marked by both turbulence and revival. After royal claims gradually transformed election into royal appointment, admission to office was effected by the bestowal, or investiture, by the lord of ring and staff (symbols of the episcopal office), preceded by an act of homage. Contemporary sources describe the peace councils as great displays of the relics of saints, which attracted large crowds of laity whose presence and enthusiasm supported the churchs reform efforts. Communities of canons, clerics who resided together (and some of whom followed a set structure, or rule, of life), formed the backbone of the liturgical life in a medieval cathedral; a major part of their duties included the daily public celebration of the Divine Office. WebBy the 11th century, the Cistercians reformed the Benedictine way of life, adhering more strictly to Benedicts original rules and focusing on manual labour and self-sufficiency. The English Henry Bradshaw Society (HBS), formed in 1890 and exclusively dedicated to publishing editions of rare liturgical texts, offered its first volume in 1891 and continues its publication program today. The architectural and geographical environment, the hierarchical and political influences, the considerations of class and gender, and the economic and social developments of each century must be understood and interwoven with theological, linguistic, and artistic interpretation. The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church. Political leaders influenced the development of liturgical books; some were produced for noble patrons, others ordered in attempts to unify a particular realm. Sociology, Anthropology, and Psychology of Religion, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.84. Leo established a papal presence north of the Alps in other church councils at which he promoted reform and denounced both simony and clerical marriage. WebThere are three major Christian kingdoms in the eleventh century: Navarre, Aragon, and Len-Castile. Others of these new groups had been or would be denounced as heretical, and yet others were influenced by the revival of an older, more Manichean dualistic theology (the Cathars/Albigensians) that challenged the traditional Christian understanding of God, the world, and salvation. Each description, or ordo, essentially provided detailed stage directions for presiders like the pope, bishops, and other clerics to follow while performing a specific liturgical rite; collectively, these texts are known as the ordines Romani. The texts and chants for each celebration of the Mass and Office came from one of two resources: the Ordinary, that is, those parts of the liturgy that remained invariable for every service; and the Proper, those parts of the liturgy that changed according to day, season, and feast. But in the northern and western regions the proliferation of small private churches had not yet been wholly absorbed, and the existence of proprietary and exempt enclaves continued until the Reformation and beyond. Gregory had no choice but to lift the ban of excommunication and restore his rival to the church. The bibliography that follows has been compiled to offer a list of secondary sources in English, each offering additional bibliographic references to numerous primary source editions as well as secondary sources and more specialized studies in a number of other languages. All of the western rites had their own lectionaries at this time; the eventual list that makes its way into the various forms of the later medieval full missal (Missale plenum) in the Roman rite is a Frankish-Roman hybrid. The sanctoral cycle was composed of feasts of the saints. Saints with Incorrupt Bodies. Local farmers would have their fields blessed during the spring, on days of fasting and prayer known as the Rogation days. In earlier centuries, some of these tests of guilt or innocence were conducted in a liturgical context, with a priest saying Mass before the ordeal and reciting exhortations and blessings over the instruments of these trials (e.g., hot water or heated iron). In the papal election decree of 1059, which was issued during the minority of the German king Henry IV (10501106), the right and duty of papal election was assigned to the cardinals, tacitly eliminating the role of the king of Germany even though vague reference to his notification was made. 6001500) provided the structure around which life in Western Europe was structured for almost a thousand years. The movement also emphasized the central role of the priesthood and the sacraments in Christian life and asserted the importance of morally incorrupt clergy. The breviary became essential for fulfilling this obligation. Schools established at monasteries and cathedrals formed the basis for the foundation and growth of medieval universities. Lccn. Only then can medieval liturgy be comprehended in all of its manifold dimensions. Dewey Decimal. Like the libelli missarum, similar collections of descriptions of how to perform various liturgical rites were also gathered in Rome. In addition to the volumes containing rubrics and prayers for liturgical celebrations, a separate cluster of books contained music to be used during these rites, in a style known as chant; Gregorian chant became the dominant form. The former Christian Iceland was Christianized in the year 1000 CE, when Christianity became the religion by law. Examples of volumes that prove useful in providing historical background or theological insights on the liturgy include: the medieval Liber Pontificalis (book of the popes) a collection that (with some irregularities) offers biographies and descriptions of the activities of the popes; liturgical commentaries from various medieval authors (like Amalarius of Metz [d. 850] or William Durandus [d. 1296]); or handbooks that offer different kinds of instruction about liturgical rites, like the earlier medieval penitentials, or the late medieval Liber sacerdotalis. A right and duty of kings and emperors since the time of Charlemagne, lay investiture had become increasingly important to secular rulers who depended on ecclesiastical support for their authority. To the east, Hungarians and Poles begin to convert to Christianity, and Christianity reaches Iceland and Greenland to the west. Rooted in late antiquity, these hours of prayer essentially consecrated the passage of each day with the praise of God. Leo introduced the spirit of reform as well as a broader conception of papal authority, both of which were dramatically displayed at the Synod of Reims in 1049. Although there were far fewer such incidents in the 11th century than in the 12th and 13th centuries, there were more in the 11th century than in the previous five centuries combined. Essentially, Easter falls on the Sunday following the first full moon after the vernal equinox. Here, priest- presiders could find the texts for these other liturgical rites, which were part of their ministry: for example, baptism, marriage, anointing of the sick, and funerals. To promote reform, Gregory held councils, issued legislation, called on the bishops and princes of the world to remove simoniac clergy, and even allowed simoniac or unchaste clergy to be rejected by the laity. 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